diff --git a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_include/layout.hpp b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_include/layout.hpp
index ad3a2c6ffd..b5da219df3 100644
--- a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_include/layout.hpp
+++ b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_include/layout.hpp
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES.
 // All rights reserved.
 //
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 #ifndef CUDA_CORE_LAYOUT_HPP
 #define CUDA_CORE_LAYOUT_HPP
diff --git a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_include/utility.hpp b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_include/utility.hpp
index aa83a465e3..64b357ac32 100644
--- a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_include/utility.hpp
+++ b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_include/utility.hpp
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 // SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 //
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 #pragma once
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/__init__.py b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/__init__.py
index bd8faf14fa..79599c77db 100644
--- a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/__init__.py
+++ b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/__init__.py
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
diff --git a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/clear_error_support.py b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/clear_error_support.py
index 0410e7aa2f..56c74ea955 100644
--- a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/clear_error_support.py
+++ b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/clear_error_support.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 
 def assert_type(obj, expected_type):
diff --git a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/driver_cu_result_explanations.py b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/driver_cu_result_explanations.py
index f4894d7563..76c6cc534a 100644
--- a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/driver_cu_result_explanations.py
+++ b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/driver_cu_result_explanations.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 from cuda.bindings import driver
 from cuda.core._utils.enum_explanations_helpers import get_best_available_explanations
diff --git a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/driver_cu_result_explanations_frozen.py b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/driver_cu_result_explanations_frozen.py
index e396afaa79..567b969038 100644
--- a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/driver_cu_result_explanations_frozen.py
+++ b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/driver_cu_result_explanations_frozen.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 # CUDA Toolkit v13.1.1
 _FALLBACK_EXPLANATIONS = {
diff --git a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/enum_explanations_helpers.py b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/enum_explanations_helpers.py
index a176de73d1..c7927e71e4 100644
--- a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/enum_explanations_helpers.py
+++ b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/enum_explanations_helpers.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Internal support for error-enum explanations.
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/runtime_cuda_error_explanations.py b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/runtime_cuda_error_explanations.py
index ab5be10e2d..1fa2226c54 100644
--- a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/runtime_cuda_error_explanations.py
+++ b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/runtime_cuda_error_explanations.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 from cuda.bindings import runtime
 from cuda.core._utils.enum_explanations_helpers import get_best_available_explanations
diff --git a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/runtime_cuda_error_explanations_frozen.py b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/runtime_cuda_error_explanations_frozen.py
index 497b2ad20d..017c408740 100644
--- a/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/runtime_cuda_error_explanations_frozen.py
+++ b/cuda_core/cuda/core/_utils/runtime_cuda_error_explanations_frozen.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 # CUDA Toolkit v13.1.1
 _FALLBACK_EXPLANATIONS = {
diff --git a/cuda_core/pytest.ini b/cuda_core/pytest.ini
index df1963f383..41bf0d9c4f 100644
--- a/cuda_core/pytest.ini
+++ b/cuda_core/pytest.ini
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 [pytest]
 addopts = --showlocals
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/cython/test_cython.py b/cuda_core/tests/cython/test_cython.py
index a118249043..87b97e8a2a 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/cython/test_cython.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/cython/test_cython.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2021-2025 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 import functools
 import importlib
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/cython/test_get_cuda_native_handle.pyx b/cuda_core/tests/cython/test_get_cuda_native_handle.pyx
index 2b105e13ae..1480a3b96b 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/cython/test_get_cuda_native_handle.pyx
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/cython/test_get_cuda_native_handle.pyx
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 # distutils: language = c++
 # distutils: extra_compile_args = -std=c++17
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_device_launch.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_device_launch.py
index 21e58cb673..0bd4ba1263 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_device_launch.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_device_launch.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Tests for device-side graph launch (GPU kernel launching a CUDA graph)."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_builder.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_builder.py
index 3f9b8e91d1..aca5a83ecf 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_builder.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_builder.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """GraphBuilder stream capture tests."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_builder_conditional.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_builder_conditional.py
index e34186fb14..1446b8b3c4 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_builder_conditional.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_builder_conditional.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Tests for GraphBuilder conditional node capture (if, if-else, switch, while)."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_memory_resource.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_memory_resource.py
index fe47ef2d68..13e6745d74 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_memory_resource.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_memory_resource.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Tests for GraphMemoryResource allocation and attributes during graph capture."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_update.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_update.py
index 8e7881f8e9..d06333afff 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_update.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graph_update.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Tests for whole-graph update (Graph.update)."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef.py
index b5c76013bd..e81c0b03b9 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Tests for GraphDef topology, node types, instantiation, and execution."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_errors.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_errors.py
index b8fe1f6dc5..54b28d7a5c 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_errors.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_errors.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Tests for GraphDef input validation, error handling, and edge cases."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_integration.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_integration.py
index 243c93433c..3fc0263c95 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_integration.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_integration.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """End-to-end integration tests exercising all GraphDef node types in realistic scenarios."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_lifetime.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_lifetime.py
index 21d519bb89..a9b3003077 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_lifetime.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_lifetime.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Tests for GraphDef resource lifetime management and RAII correctness."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_mutation.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_mutation.py
index 5c8d9434dd..2f9dd442da 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_mutation.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_graphdef_mutation.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Tests for mutating a graph definition (edge changes, node removal)."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_options.py b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_options.py
index 33d647f6fe..0d10db459d 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_options.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/graph/test_options.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Graph options and build mode tests."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/helpers/collection_interface_testers.py b/cuda_core/tests/helpers/collection_interface_testers.py
index d9b5ee2cd0..5197e475c1 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/helpers/collection_interface_testers.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/helpers/collection_interface_testers.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Reusable helpers to verify collections.abc protocol conformance."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/helpers/graph_kernels.py b/cuda_core/tests/helpers/graph_kernels.py
index 657d7509b2..c7d0ed766a 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/helpers/graph_kernels.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/helpers/graph_kernels.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Shared kernel compilation helpers for graph tests."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/helpers/marks.py b/cuda_core/tests/helpers/marks.py
index 5474c862ba..53fcc544eb 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/helpers/marks.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/helpers/marks.py
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 """Reusable pytest marks for cuda_core tests."""
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/test_cuda_utils.py b/cuda_core/tests/test_cuda_utils.py
index 1357ca3a12..be22e57998 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/test_cuda_utils.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/test_cuda_utils.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 import dataclasses
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/test_helpers.py b/cuda_core/tests/test_helpers.py
index bd13ed5067..23a5b71c85 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/test_helpers.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/test_helpers.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2024 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 import time
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/test_linker.py b/cuda_core/tests/test_linker.py
index c36903ab32..30a6a03349 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/test_linker.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/test_linker.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2024-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 import pytest
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/test_optional_dependency_imports.py b/cuda_core/tests/test_optional_dependency_imports.py
index 730c6e7834..02edcc9839 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/test_optional_dependency_imports.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/test_optional_dependency_imports.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 import pytest
 
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/test_program.py b/cuda_core/tests/test_program.py
index ac40fb735d..a062f3714e 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/test_program.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/test_program.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2024-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 import contextlib
 import re
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/test_utils.py b/cuda_core/tests/test_utils.py
index 59829f8fb3..4bdebcbde3 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/test_utils.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/test_utils.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2024-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 import ctypes
 import math
diff --git a/cuda_core/tests/test_utils_enum_explanations_helpers.py b/cuda_core/tests/test_utils_enum_explanations_helpers.py
index d46355aefd..6d4c9e32b8 100644
--- a/cuda_core/tests/test_utils_enum_explanations_helpers.py
+++ b/cuda_core/tests/test_utils_enum_explanations_helpers.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) 2025-2026 NVIDIA CORPORATION & AFFILIATES. All rights reserved.
 #
-# SPDX-License-Identifier: LicenseRef-NVIDIA-SOFTWARE-LICENSE
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
 
 import importlib
 import sys
diff --git a/toolshed/check_spdx.py b/toolshed/check_spdx.py
index b404b78e30..292637817e 100644
--- a/toolshed/check_spdx.py
+++ b/toolshed/check_spdx.py
@@ -6,15 +6,18 @@
 import re
 import subprocess
 import sys
+from pathlib import PureWindowsPath
 
 import pathspec
 
-# Intentionally puzzling together EXPECTED_SPDX_BYTES so that we don't overlook
-# if the identifiers are missing in this file.
-EXPECTED_SPDX_BYTES = (
-    b"-".join((b"SPDX", b"License", b"Identifier: ")),
-    b"-".join((b"SPDX", b"FileCopyrightText: ")),
-)
+# Intentionally puzzling together SPDX prefixes so that we don't overlook if the
+# identifiers are missing in this file.
+SPDX_LICENSE_IDENTIFIER_PREFIX = b"-".join((b"SPDX", b"License", b"Identifier: "))
+SPDX_FILE_COPYRIGHT_TEXT_PREFIX = b"-".join((b"SPDX", b"FileCopyrightText: "))
+
+LICENSE_IDENTIFIER_REGEX = re.compile(re.escape(SPDX_LICENSE_IDENTIFIER_PREFIX) + rb"(?P<license_identifier>[^\r\n]+)")
+
+EXPECTED_LICENSE_IDENTIFIERS = (("cuda_core/", "Apache-2.0"),)
 
 SPDX_IGNORE_FILENAME = ".spdx-ignore"
 
@@ -47,6 +50,92 @@ def is_staged(filepath):
     return process.stdout.strip() != ""
 
 
+def normalize_repo_path(filepath):
+    # We compare against repo prefixes like "cuda_core/" regardless of host OS.
+    # os.path.normpath is host-dependent: on POSIX it leaves "\" untouched, and
+    # on Windows it normalizes to "\" separators, so neither gives a stable
+    # forward-slash form for this prefix check.
+    return PureWindowsPath(filepath).as_posix()
+
+
+def get_expected_license_identifier(filepath):
+    normalized_path = normalize_repo_path(filepath)
+    for prefix, license_identifier in EXPECTED_LICENSE_IDENTIFIERS:
+        if normalized_path.startswith(prefix):
+            return license_identifier
+    return None
+
+
+def validate_required_spdx_field(filepath, blob, expected_bytes):
+    if expected_bytes in blob:
+        return True
+    print(f"MISSING {expected_bytes.decode()}{filepath!r}")
+    return False
+
+
+def extract_license_identifier(blob):
+    match = LICENSE_IDENTIFIER_REGEX.search(blob)
+    if match is None:
+        return None
+    try:
+        return match.group("license_identifier").decode("ascii")
+    except UnicodeDecodeError:
+        return None
+
+
+def validate_license_identifier(filepath, blob):
+    license_identifier = extract_license_identifier(blob)
+    if license_identifier is None:
+        print(f"MISSING valid SPDX license identifier in {filepath!r}")
+        return False
+
+    expected_license_identifier = get_expected_license_identifier(filepath)
+    if expected_license_identifier is None:
+        return True
+
+    if license_identifier != expected_license_identifier:
+        print(
+            f"INVALID SPDX license identifier {license_identifier!r} "
+            f"(expected {expected_license_identifier!r}) in {filepath!r}"
+        )
+        return False
+
+    return True
+
+
+def validate_or_fix_copyright(filepath, blob, fix):
+    match = re.search(COPYRIGHT_REGEX, blob)
+    if match is None:
+        print(f"MISSING valid copyright line in {filepath!r}")
+        return False, blob
+
+    years = match.group("years").decode()
+    if "-" in years:
+        start_year, end_year = years.split("-", 1)
+        if int(start_year) > int(end_year):
+            print(f"INVALID copyright years {years!r} in {filepath!r}")
+            return False, blob
+    else:
+        start_year = end_year = years
+
+    if not is_staged(filepath) or int(end_year) >= int(CURRENT_YEAR):
+        return True, blob
+
+    print(f"OUTDATED copyright {years!r} (expected {CURRENT_YEAR!r}) in {filepath!r}")
+    if not fix:
+        return False, blob
+
+    new_years = f"{start_year}-{CURRENT_YEAR}"
+    return (
+        False,
+        re.sub(
+            COPYRIGHT_REGEX,
+            COPYRIGHT_SUB.format(new_years).encode("ascii"),
+            blob,
+        ),
+    )
+
+
 def find_or_fix_spdx(filepath, fix):
     with open(filepath, "rb") as f:
         blob = f.read()
@@ -54,44 +143,22 @@ def find_or_fix_spdx(filepath, fix):
         return True
 
     good = True
-    for expected_bytes in EXPECTED_SPDX_BYTES:
-        if expected_bytes not in blob:
-            print(f"MISSING {expected_bytes.decode()}{filepath!r}")
-            good = False
-            continue
-
-        match = re.search(COPYRIGHT_REGEX, blob)
-        if match is None:
-            print(f"MISSING valid copyright line in {filepath!r}")
-            good = False
-            continue
+    has_license_identifier = validate_required_spdx_field(filepath, blob, SPDX_LICENSE_IDENTIFIER_PREFIX)
+    has_copyright = validate_required_spdx_field(filepath, blob, SPDX_FILE_COPYRIGHT_TEXT_PREFIX)
 
-        years = match.group("years").decode()
-        if "-" in years:
-            start_year, end_year = years.split("-", 1)
-            if int(start_year) > int(end_year):
-                print(f"INVALID copyright years {years!r} in {filepath!r}")
-                good = False
-                continue
-        else:
-            start_year = end_year = years
+    if not has_license_identifier or not validate_license_identifier(filepath, blob):
+        good = False
 
-        staged = is_staged(filepath)
-
-        if staged and int(end_year) < int(CURRENT_YEAR):
-            print(f"OUTDATED copyright {years!r} (expected {CURRENT_YEAR!r}) in {filepath!r}")
+    if not has_copyright:
+        good = False
+    else:
+        copyright_ok, updated_blob = validate_or_fix_copyright(filepath, blob, fix)
+        if updated_blob != blob:
+            with open(filepath, "wb") as f:
+                f.write(updated_blob)
+        if not copyright_ok:
             good = False
 
-            if fix:
-                new_years = f"{start_year}-{CURRENT_YEAR}"
-                blob = re.sub(
-                    COPYRIGHT_REGEX,
-                    COPYRIGHT_SUB.format(new_years).encode("ascii"),
-                    blob,
-                )
-                with open(filepath, "wb") as f:
-                    f.write(blob)
-
     return good